New mosquito patch in fight against malaria and West Nile virus

A new mosquito-beating patch is being developed in California that, if successfully rolled out in Africa, could help prevent illnesses such as malaria, West Nile virus and dengue fever.
The Kite patch adheres to clothing, much like a sticker, and uses FDA-approved, non-toxic compounds that block a mosquito's ability to track humans for 48 hours.
The sticker was created by a team based in Riverside, CA, after 7 years of research and development by Olfactor Laboratories, Inc. and the University of California, Riverside.
The company behind the patch, ieCrowd, employed designers to make it withstand tough conditions. The product website for the sticker claims it is "perfectly suited for children in Uganda, professional athletes, families on the soccer field, outdoor enthusiasts, and workers in the suburbs of Manila."
Since mosquitos track humans through carbon dioxide release, the company notes that the Kite should work on all types of mosquitos, citing preliminary field trials that show the patch's effectiveness on many different species of mosquitos.
Though the patch should not replace mosquito nets at night in high-risk areas, the patch is being promoted as a replacement for sprays or lotions currently on the market.

Malaria is a global problem

Humans become infected with malaria when a mosquito carrying the parasite transfers it to the bloodstream through a bite in the skin.

The Kite adheres to clothing like a sticker. For up to 48 hours it can block mosquitos' ability to track humans via carbon dioxide.

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), around 219 million people had malaria in 2010 and 660,000 of these people died. Africa was hit the hardest, with 91% of all malaria deaths happening on that continent.
In the US, there are around 1,500 cases of malaria each year, most of which involve people who have traveled to Africa and South Asia.
Symptoms of malaria infection includefever, chills and flu-like illness. If left untreated, sufferers of malaria can eventually die from complications.
The direct costs of malaria - those relating to illness, treatment and premature death - are around $12 billion each year, according to the makers of the Kite. The company claims that costs relating to lost economic growth "are many times more."

Prevention is key for mosquito-borne illnesses

While malaria kills a large number of people each year, it is easily preventable. We know where it comes from (mosquitoes) and we know how to avoid these insects (using nets and repellants).
Grey Frandsen, the project lead and chief marketing officer at ieCrowd, is a surviver of malaria himself. He says:

"We want this small patch to change people's lives. We're designing Kite to deliver everyone protection from mosquitoes, no matter where they are in the world.
It will provide a new level of protection for children in Uganda, for young families in South Africa, and hikers in Seattle or Wyoming or Florida seeking a safer, socially-responsible solution.
We built Kite to be simple and affordable - a small colorful sticker that will appeal to children and adults and survive the rigors of extreme climates, play time, or outdoor recreation."

The company recently launched a crowdfunding campaign to help their first roll out of the potentially life-saving product in Uganda. They will continue to test the patch there, where communities have the highest need for a solution.
A recent study showed that malaria-carrying mosquitos are more strongly attracted to the smell of humans, which is why a patch that blocks their ability to find us in the first place could be an effective weapon against malaria.

HIV Shell Structure Cracked With Help Of Supercomputer

A new study that features on the cover of Nature this week describes how researchers in the US have for the first time cracked the chemical structure of the capsid or protein shell of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The breakthrough, which likely opens the way to powerful new drugs against the virus that causes AIDS, was made possible with the help of a new "petascale" supercomputer.
Scientists have been trying for some time to crack the precise chemical structure of HIV's cone-shaped capsid, a protein shell that protects the virus's genetic material. The capsid is thought to be the key to virulence of HIV and has become an attractive target for new antiretroviral drug development.

As senior author of this new Nature study, Peijun Zhang, an associate professor of structural biology at the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, says in a statement:

"The capsid is critically important for HIV replication, so knowing its structure in detail could lead us to new drugs that can treat or prevent the infection."

"This approach has the potential to be a powerful alternative to our current HIV therapies, which work by targeting certain enzymes, but drug resistance is an enormous challenge due to the virus' high mutation rate."

Previous studies have described attempts to chip away at the capsid structure bit by bit. To try and see the atomic-level detail of the shell, made of over 1,300 identical proteins, researchers have used a range of sophisticated lab tools, from nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and X-ray crystallography, to cryo-electron microscopy and cryo-EM tomography.

But it was only when they added the processing power of the new petascale Blue Waters supercomputer at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications at the University of Illinois, to the already impressive array of tools, that Zhang and colleagues were able to fathom the chemical structure of the entire capsid.

A petascale computer has a number-crunching rate measured in "petaflops", or petas (quadrillions, 10¹⁵) of floating point instructions per second. To put this into context, a petascale computer can perform in one second the same number of instructions as it would take everyone on Earth doing one calculation per second for 1.5 days.

The simulations that added the missing pieces to the HIV capsid puzzle were conducted during testing of Blue Waters by co- authors Klaus Schulten, a physics professor, and Juan R. Perilla, a post-doc researcher, both at the University of Illinois.

Commenting on the HIV capsid challenge, Schulten says:

"This is a big structure, one of the biggest structures ever solved."

"It was very clear that it would require a huge amount of simulation - the largest simulation ever published - involving 64 million atoms," he adds.


From previous studies that had found the HIV capsid contains a number of identical proteins, the researchers already knew these proteins are arranged as pentagons and hexagons, and they had a hunch that the pentagons formed the tight round corners of the cone-shaped capsid they could see under an electron microscope.

But exactly how many of these proteins it takes to make the capsid, or how the pentagons and hexagons fit together, remained a mystery.

Zhang and the structural biology team at Pittsburgh found that when exposed to high concentrations of salt, the protein building blocks assemble into tubes made only of hexagons.

From further experiments they found that certain regions of the proteins interact with one another in a way that is "critical for capsid assembly and stability, and for viral infectivity," they note.

They then managed to get a rough idea of the overall shape of the capsid by taking cryo-electron tomographs of it sliced into sections.

From these results, and their own simulations of how the hexamers and pentamers might interact, Schulten and Perilla carried out a series of large-scale computer simulations.

Schulten says that they could only match the 64-million-atom capsid structure to the "diverse" experimental data using a unique approach they developed themselves that they call "molecular dynamic flexible fitting".

"You basically simulate the physical characteristics and behavior of large biological molecules but you also incorporate the data into the simulation so that the model actually drives itself toward agreement with the data," he explains.

With these techniques the researchers found that the HIV protein shell comprises 216 hexagons and 12 pentagons arranged in the way the experimental data suggested.

The proteins in the hexagons and pentagons were identical but the angles through which they attached to each other were different among different regions of the structure.

Schulten says this is what puzzled them: such a protein would have to be inherently flexible to form such a varied structure.

By having pentagons as well as hexagons, the capsid can form a closed structure, explain the researchers, describing the property the pentagons bring as "induced acute surface curvature". (A quick look at the structure of fullerenes, or even soccer balls for that matter, and you get an idea of what they are talking about).

Schulten says that knowing more about the detailed structure of the HIV capsid will help researchers understand how it functions, and this helps drug developers work out how to disrupt those functions.

He explains how the HIV capsid has to perform two opposing functions. It has to remain intact to protect its genetic material, but it also has to be able to release it in a timely manner once inside the host cell so it can replicate.

"That has to happen with really good timing - too quick is not good, too slow is not good. And this is a moment when you can throw a wrench into the system," says Schulten.

"The timing of the opening of the capsid is essential for the degree of virulence of the virus. This is where we could perhaps best interfere with HIV infection," he adds.

Funds for the study came from the National Institute of General Medical Sciences at the National Institutes of Health and the National Science Foundation, which also funds the Blue Waters supercomputer.

Earlier this year, scientists in the UK developed a vaccine against foot and mouth disease that uses a synthetic virus capsid to provoke an immune response.

To determine the structure of that virus shell, and identify mutations that would improve it, they used Diamond Light Source, the UK's national synchrotron facility.

IPhone Microscope Helps Diagnose Intestinal Worms

smart phones are transforming the way that people communicate throughout the world. Now scientists are using them in an innovative way to help diagnose intestinal worm infections in school children living in rural Tanzania.

The scientists have developed an inexpensive microscope using a glass lens costing $8 USD, a strip of double-sided tape, and a cheap flashlight - altering an iPhone 4s into a device that can detect intestinal worm infections; parasites that infect two billion people and result in malnutrition.

Isaac Bogoch, MD, an infectious disease specialist at Toronto General Hospital and the study's lead author explained:

"There's been a lot of tinkering in the lab with mobile phone microscopes, but this is the first time the technology has been used in the field to diagnose intestinal parasites."

The scientists' findings were published in the American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, and evaluated 199 stool samples of children using their unique device.

Along with a standard light microscope the researchers examined the samples with the cell phone microscopes and a regular laboratory slide. The kids participating in the trial on Pemba Island, Tanzania, were undergoing different treatments for eliminating intestinal worms.

Scientists first covered the slide in cellophane, then used the double-sided tape to attach it to the camera, lit it from underneath with the flashlight and finally took a picture.

The iPhone microscope was found to be not as sensitive as a light microscope, however, the scientists believe that with some changes it will come close. Bogoch commented, "We think cell phone microscopes could soon become a valuable diagnostic tool in poor, remote regions where intestinal worms are a serious health problem, particularly in children."

Intestinal Worms - A Global Issue

The cell phone microscope sensitivity was dependent on the type of worm and the strength of the infection.

Scientists have developed the camera on an iPhone into a microscope that can detect intestinal worm infections.
Photo Credit: Isaac Bogoch

For example, the cellphone found 81 percent of infections of giant roundworm (A. lumbricoides) and 54 percent of roundworm infections (T. trichiura ). But, it only detected 14 percent of all hookworm infections; the researchers say that this is due to the much smaller number of eggs present than with the other parasites.

"It was quite successful at detecting moderate to heavy infections, but not very good at detecting mild infections where there might be only a few eggs in the sample," Bogoch said.

Worms that infect the intestines, such as roundworms and hookworms - or soil-transmitted helminths - harm nearly two billion people worldwide. In isolated, poor regions of developing nations rates of this disease are particularly high and can result in chronic malnutrition and anemia in kids.

Bogoch and his team aimed to find an alternative tool by taping a 3 millimeter ball lens to the camera of Bogoch's Apple iPhone 4S - one he already owned. However, the researchers noted that any phone that has a camera with a zoom option could work effectively. Ball lenses are normally used in the telecommunications field in couplings for optical fiber cable. They are inexpensive - generally $8 to $10 USD.

Instead of an electric light, they used a small flashlight that just needs a single battery for many hours of operation. The entire set-up can be developed for $15 USD, in addition to the cost of the phone, and can be assembled in five minutes.

Cell Phone Microscope - Several Implications

The authors believe that the "mobile phone microscope would likely be of clinical use when it is sensitive enough to detect 80 percent of infections," and note that even now there are new developments underway to improve the current cell phone microscopes.

Bogoch said, "I'm confident that in the near future we will see cell phone microscopes widely used in low-resource settings. They're easy to make, portable, and today, you can find mobile phones with cameras even in some of the most remote regions in the world."

The cell microscope can be used for treating and diagnosing people with worm infections as well as observing the prevalence of disease amongst the broader population.

One example could be when administering drug treatment to large populations. Cell phone microscopes could serve as cheap and effective tools to calculate the effectiveness of these mass drug administration campaigns.

David H. Walker, MD, president of the American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene said:

"I have nothing but praise for the ingenuity of scientists using all available tools to solve pressing health problems in some of the poorest parts of the world. This study is an illustration of how a modest investment in tropical disease research can help reap enormous health benefits for children."

New Measles Cases Highest In 18 Years, England

New cases of measles have reached their highest level in 18 years in the England and Wales, many of them young adults and teenagers who were not immunized after the fraudulent 1998 MMR scare. Health authorities say that many young people and children have had to be taken to hospital.
According to the HPA (Health Protection Agency), there were 2,016 confirmed cases in England and Wales last year, the highest total for one year since 1994.

In 2012, there were prolonged outbreaks in Merseyside and Sussex, as well as several minor outbreaks among travelling communities across the country.

Eighty-seven percent of the 7,392 measles cases reported in the EU (European Union) up to the end of November 2012 came from Romania, Spain, Italy, France and the UK.

Head of immunization at the HPA, Dr Mary Ramsay, said:

"Coverage of MMR is now at historically high levels but measles is highly infectious and can spread easily among communities that are poorly vaccinated, and can affect anyone who is susceptible, including toddlers in whom vaccination has been delayed. Older children who were not vaccinated at the routine age, who may now be teenagers, are at particular risk of becoming exposed, while at school for example.

Measles continues to circulate in several European countries that are popular with holidaymakers. Measles is a highly infectious disease so the only way to prevent outbreaks is to make sure the UK has good uptake of the MMR vaccine, and that when cases are reported, immediate public health action is taken to target unvaccinated individuals in the vicinity as soon as possible."

Dr. Ramsay explained that many people are not aware that measles can strike people today, can cause severe disease and even death; they see it as a disease of the past. Parents need to make sure that their children are immunized against rubella, mumps and measles with two doses of the MMR vaccine.

UK health authorities are urging parents whose kids have not been vaccinated to see their GP (general practitioner, primary care physician) to get immunized. Unvaccinated adults should also see their doctor.

Dr. Ramsay said "If you are unsure whether you or your child has had two doses of the vaccine, speak to your GP who will have a record."

The following signs and symptoms are common in people with measles:

• Flu-like symptoms
• Fever
• Photophobia (sensitivity to light)
• Red eyes
• Gray-white spots in the throat and mouth
• Within a few days a red-brown spotty rash appears on the skin, which usually starts off behind the ears, makes its way around the head and neck, and then spreads to the legs and the rest of the body.

USA - 2011 saw highest number of measles cases in 15 years

In April 2012, the CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) informed that in 2011 there were more reported cases of measles in the United States than in any of the previous 15 years. Most cases involved foreigners visiting the country or Americans who became infected abroad.

However, the total, at 222 is dwarfed by the current figures coming out of the European Union. One third of all the measles cases in the USA in 2011 had to be hospitalized - however, there were no deaths from the disease that year.

Health Risk To Tourists From Contact With Captive Sea Turtles

Tourists coming into contact with sea turtles at holiday attractions face a risk of health problems, according to research published by JRSM Short Reports. Encountering free-living sea turtles in nature is quite safe, but contact with wild-caught and captive-housed sea turtles, typically through handling turtles in confined pools or through consuming turtle products, carries the risk of exposure to toxic contaminants and to zoonotic (animal to human) pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites. Symptoms, which may take some time to emerge, can resemble gastrointestinal disorders or flu but people more severely affected can suffer septicaemia, pneumonia, meningitis and acute renal failure.

The review included a case study of the Cayman Turtle Farm in Grand Cayman, which between 2007 and 2011 attracted approximately 1.2 million visitors. CTF sells farmed turtle meat to the public and local restaurants. One of the researchers, Clifford Warwick of the Emergent Disease Foundation, said: "The subsequent distribution of visitors exposed to turtle farm conditions may also involve opportunities for further dissemination of contaminants into established tourist hubs including cruise ship and airline carriers."

Warwick added that awareness of potential threats may be modest among health-care professionals and low among the public. "To prevent and control the spreading of sea turtle-related disease, greater awareness is needed among health-care professionals regarding potential pathogens and toxic contaminants from sea turtles, as well as key signs and symptoms of typical illnesses."

The study was funded by the World Society for the Protection of Animals. Warwick said: "Significantly, the captive farming of turtles arguably increases the threat to health, in particular from bacteria, due to the practice of housing many turtles in a relatively confined space and under intensive conditions."

Warwick concluded: "People should avoid food derived from sea turtles and perhaps also other relatively long-lived species regardless of their role in the food chain as all these animals potentially have more time in which to accumulate hazardous organisms and toxins and present an increased risk of animal-linked human pathology."

Interferon-Free Therapy For Hepatitis C May Become A Reality

A new exploratory agent has been tested in the treatment of the hepatitis C virus infection (HCV), allowing patients to avoid the current interferon treatment that comes with harsh side effects.
A clinical trial published in the New England Journal of Medicine has defined sofosbuvir, an oral nucleotide inhibitor of HCV polymerase, as successful in the treatment of HCV infection.

The standard treatment for the HCV infection is interferon, given by injection under the fat. Troublesome side effects are also found with interferon, including:

• flu-like symtoms
• fatigue
• decrease in white blood count
• depression
• irritability
• sleep disruptions
• anxiety

The creation of orally administered medications have helped move forward the possibility of getting rid of interferon treatment and avoiding its harmful side effects and tedious application.

The study was open-label and researchers split 40 patients with untreated HCV, genotype 2 or 3 infection, into four groups. All groups received sofosbuvir (400 mg once a day) as well as ribavirin for the duration of 12 weeks.

Three of the groups were also given peginterferon alfa-2a for 4, 8, or 12 weeks. Another two extra groups who were also untreated previously and had HCV genotype 2 or 3, were given only sofosbuvir for 12 weeks or a combination of sofosbuvir and peginterferon afda-2a for eight weeks.

Two other groups of subjects with HCV genotype 1 infection took sofosbuvir and ribavirin for 12 weeks, including 10 people who had no reaction to earlier treatment and 25 people with no earlier treatment.

Conclusions showed that of the 40 patients who were in the randomized groups, 100% who received sofosbuvir plus ribavirin and no interferon had a sustained viral response (six months without RNA of the HCV in the blood).

The group that received sofosbuvir plus ribavirin for 12 weeks and interferon for 4, 8 or 12 weeks also showed a sustained viral response. Of the volunteers who received sofosbuvir plus peginterferon alfa-2a and ribavirin for 8 weeks, 100% had a sustained viral response, while only 60% of those who received sofobuvir by itself showing a sustained viral response.

Among the participants with HCV genotype 1 infection, 84% of those who were untreated before and 10% of those with no response to prior therapy had a sustained viral response.

Side effects that were present during the study included headache, nausea, anemia, fatigue, insomnia, and rash.

The authors believe these findings are the first step to an oral-based, short time-period treatment regimen that does not include interferon.

The current findings support a previous study conducted by Boehringer Ingelheim that found the interferon-free combination of two investigational compounds, the once-a-day protease inhibitor BI 201335 and the polymerase inhibitor BI 207127, successfully brought patients to a sustained viral response.